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Project website github.com/worldbank/sdg-metadata
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This project is limited to Russian translation only, for now.

More detailed instructions to come.
Project maintainers User avatar brockfanning
Translation license MIT License
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  • Translations are reviewed by dedicated reviewers.
  • Any authenticated user can contribute.
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Source code repository https://github.com/worldbank/sdg-metadata
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Translation file Download translations-metadata/ru/15-4-2.yml
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Language Russian
Language code ru
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Number of speakers 193,498,207
Number of plurals 3
Plural type One/few/many
Plurals One 1, 21, 31, 41, 51, 61, 71, 81, 91, 101, …
Few 2, 3, 4, 22, 23, 24, 32, 33, 34, 42, …
Many 0, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, …
Plural formula n%10==1 && n%100!=11 ? 0 : n%10>=2 && n%10<=4 && (n%100<10 || n%100>=20) ? 1 : 2
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Waiting for review 9% 3 2% 108 1% 762
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Needs editing 62% 20 82% 4,122 83% 37,405
Read-only 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0
Failing checks 65% 21 85% 4,283 86% 38,665
Strings with suggestions 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0
Untranslated strings 28% 9 15% 761 14% 6,601
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<p>ESA (2017) Land Cover CCI Product User Guide Version 2. Tech. Rep. Available at:<strong> </strong><a href="http://maps.elie.ucl.ac.be/CCI/viewer/download/ESACCI-LC-Ph2-PUGv2_2.0.pdf"><u>maps.elie.ucl.ac.be/CCI/viewer/download/ESACCI-LC-Ph2-PUGv2_2.0.pdf</u></a></p>
<p>FAO-GTOS. (2009). <em>Land Cover: Assessment of the status of the development of the standards for the Terrestrial Essential Climate Variables</em>. Global Terrestrial Observing System, Rome. </p>
<p>IPBES (2018): <em>Summary for policymakers of the assessment report on land degradation and restoration of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services</em>. R. Scholes, L. Montanarella, A. Brainich, N. Barger, B. ten Brink, M. Cantele, B. Erasmus, J. Fisher, T. Gardner, T. G. Holland, F. Kohler, J. S. Kotiaho, G. Von Maltitz, G. Nangendo, R. Pandit, J. Parrotta, M. D. Potts, S. Prince, M. Sankaran and L. Willemen (eds.). IPBES secretariat, Bonn, Germany. 44 pages</p>
<p>K&#xF6;rner, C., Paulsen, J., &amp; Spehn, E. (2011). A definition of mountains and their bioclimatic belts for global comparisons of biodiversity data. <em>Alpine Botany, 121</em>, 73-78.</p>
<p>Notarnicola, C. (2020) Hotspots of snow cover changes in global mountain regions over 2000-2018. <em>Remote Sensing of Environment </em>243, 111781.</p>
<p>Olofsson, P., Foody, G. M., Herold, M., Stehman, S. V., Woodcock, C. E., Wulder, M. A. (2014): Good practices for estimating area and assessing accuracy of land change<em>. Remote Sensing of Environment</em>, 148, 42-57.</p>
<p>Ravilious, C., Tshwene-Mauchaza, B. and Kapos, V. (2021). <em>Validation and implementation of the Kapos Mountain Classification: Assessing the impact of DEM resolution on the mapping of mountain classes following the Kapos methodology</em>. UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK.</p>
<p>Santoro, M., Kirches, G., Wevers, J., Boettcher, M., Brockmann, C., Lamarche, C., . . . Defourny, P. (2015). <em>Land Cover CCI PRODUCT USER GUIDE VERSION 2.0.</em> European Spatial Agency. European Spatial Agency. Retrieved from http://maps.elie.ucl.ac.be/CCI/viewer/download/ESACCI-LC-Ph2-PUGv2_2.0.pdf</p>
<p>Sims, N.C., Newnham, G.J., England, J.R., Guerschman, J., Cox, S.J.D., Roxburgh, S.H., Viscarra Rossel, R.A., Fritz, S. and Wheeler, I. (2021). <em>Good Practice Guidance. SDG Indicator 15.3.1, Proportion of Land That Is Degraded Over Total Land Area. Version 2.0.</em> United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, Bonn, Germany </p>
<p>UN Statistical Division (2014). <em>System of Environmental Economic Accounting 2012 &#x2014; Central Framework. </em>New York, USA.</p>
<p>UNEP-WCMC (2002). <em>Mountain Watch: Environmental change and sustainable development in mountains.</em> Cambridge, UK</p>
<p><strong>Annex 1.</strong> Land cover transition matrix for the 10 SEEA classes. Land cover change processes are color coded as improvement (green), stable (yellow) or degradation (red). (Adapted from Sims <em>et al</em>. 2021). </p>
<table>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td colspan="10">
<p><strong>FINAL CLASS</strong></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>
<p><strong>Artificial surfaces</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p><strong>Cropland</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p><strong>Grassland</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p><strong>Tree-covered areas</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p><strong>Shrub-covered areas</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p><strong>Herbaceous or shrub</strong></p>
<p><strong>vegetation,</strong></p>
<p><strong>aquatic or</strong></p>
<p><strong>regularly</strong></p>
<p><strong>flooded</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p><strong>Sparsely natural vegetated areas</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p><strong>Barren land</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p><strong>Permanent snow &amp; glaciers</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p><strong>Water bodies</strong></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="10">
<p><strong>ORIGINAL CLASS</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p><strong>Artificial Surfaces</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Stable</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Agricultural Expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Vegetation establishment</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Forest expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Vegetation establishment</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Wetland establishment</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Withdrawal of settlements</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Withdrawal of settlements</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Withdrawal of settlements</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Withdrawal of settlements</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<p><strong>Cropland</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Urban expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Stable</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Withdrawal of agriculture</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Forest expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Vegetation establishment</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Wetland establishment </p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Vegetation loss</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Vegetation loss</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Glacier advance</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Inundation</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<p><strong>Grassland</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Urban expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Agricultural Expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Stable</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Forest expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Woody encroachment</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Wetland establishment</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Vegetation loss</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Vegetation loss</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Glacier advance</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Inundation</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<p><strong>Tree-covered areas</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Deforestation</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Deforestation</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Deforestation</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Stable</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Vegetation loss</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Inundation</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Deforestation</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Deforestation</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Glacier advance</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Inundation</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<p><strong>Shrub-covered areas</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Urban expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Agricultural expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Vegetation loss</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Forest expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Stable</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Inundation</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Vegetation loss</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Vegetation loss</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Glacier advance</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Inundation</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<p><strong>Herbaceous or shrub</strong></p>
<p><strong>vegetation,</strong></p>
<p><strong>aquatic or</strong></p>
<p><strong>regularly</strong></p>
<p><strong>flooded</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Wetland drainage</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Wetland drainage</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Wetland drainage</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Wetland drainage</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Woody encroachment</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Stable</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Wetland drainage</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Wetland drainage</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Glacier advance</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Inundation</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<p><strong>Sparsely natural vegetated areas</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Urban expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Agricultural expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Vegetation establishment</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Forest expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Vegetation establishment</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Wetland establishment</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Stable</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Vegetation loss</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Glacier advance</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Inundation</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<p><strong>Barren land</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Urban expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Agricultural expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Vegetation establishment</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Forest expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Vegetation establishment</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Wetland establishment</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Vegetation establishment</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Stable</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Glacier advance</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Inundation </p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<p><strong>Permanent snow &amp; glaciers</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Urban expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Agricultural expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Glacier retreat</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Glacier retreat</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Glacier retreat</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Glacier melting</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Glacier retreat</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Glacier retreat</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Stable</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Glacier melting</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<p><strong>Water bodies</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Urban expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Agricultural expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Lake dessication</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Lake dessication</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Lake dessication </p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Lake dessication </p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Lake dessication</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Lake dessication</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Glacier advance</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Stable</p>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h1> Ссылки </h1>
<p>Eurostat (2019). <em>LUCAS Grid</em>. Eurostat Your Key to European statistics: <a ref="https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/lucas/data/lucas-grid">https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/lucas/data/lucas-grid</a></p>
<p>Kapos, V., Rhind, J., Edwards, M., Prince, M., &amp; Ravillous, C. (2000). Developing a map of the world&#x2019;s mountain forests. In M. F. Price , &amp; N. Butt (Eds.), <em>Forests in Sustainable Mountain Development: A State-of-Knowledge Report for 2000</em> (pp. 4-9). Wallingford: CAB International.</p>
<p>Karagulle, D., Frye, C., Breyer, S., Aniello, P., Vaughan, R., &amp; Wright, D. (2017). Modeling global Hammond landform regions from 250-m elevation data. <em>Transactions in GIS</em>. doi:10.1111/tgis.12265</p>
<p>K&#xF6;rner, C., Paulsen, J., &amp; Spehn, E. (2011). A definition of mountains and their bioclimatic belts for global comparisons of biodiversity data. <em>Alpine Botany, 121</em>, 73-78.</p>
<p>Santoro, M., Kirches, G., Wevers, J., Boettcher, M., Brockmann, C., Lamarche, C., . . . Defourny, P. (2015). <em>Land Cover CCI PRODUCT USER GUIDE VERSION 2.0.</em> European Spatial Agency. European Spatial Agency. Получено из <a href>"http://maps.elie.ucl.ac.be/CCI/viewer/download/ESACCI-LC-Ph2-PUGv2_2.0.pdf">http://maps.elie.ucl.ac.be/CCI/viewer/download/ESACCI-LC-Ph2-PUGv2_2.0.pdf</a></p>
<p><a href="http://www.mountainpartnership.org/our-work/focusareas/foodsecurity/en/">http://www.mountainpartnership.org/our-work/focusareas/foodsecurity/en/</a> (горный растер ГИС доступен для скачивания с правой панели) </p>
<p><a href="http://www.openforis.org/tools/collect-earth.html">http://www.openforis.org/tools/collect-earth.html</a></p>
<p><a href="http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5175e.pdf">http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5175e.pdf</a></p>
<p><a href="http://www.fao.org/">http://www.fao.org/</a></p>
a year ago
User avatar None

Source string changed
<p>ESA (2017) Land Cover CCI Product User Guide Version 2. Tech. Rep. Available at:<strong> </strong><a href="http://maps.elie.ucl.ac.be/CCI/viewer/download/ESACCI-LC-Ph2-PUGv2_2.0.pdf"><u>maps.elie.ucl.ac.be/CCI/viewer/download/ESACCI-LC-Ph2-PUGv2_2.0.pdf</u></a></p>
<p>FAO-GTOS. (2009). <em>Land Cover: Assessment of the status of the development of the standards for the Terrestrial Essential Climate Variables</em>. Global Terrestrial Observing System, Rome. </p>
<p>IPBES (2018): <em>Summary for policymakers of the assessment report on land degradation and restoration of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services</em>. R. Scholes, L. Montanarella, A. Brainich, N. Barger, B. ten Brink, M. Cantele, B. Erasmus, J. Fisher, T. Gardner, T. G. Holland, F. Kohler, J. S. Kotiaho, G. Von Maltitz, G. Nangendo, R. Pandit, J. Parrotta, M. D. Potts, S. Prince, M. Sankaran and L. Willemen (eds.). IPBES secretariat, Bonn, Germany. 44 pages</p>
<p>K&#xF6;rner, C., Paulsen, J., &amp; Spehn, E. (2011). A definition of mountains and their bioclimatic belts for global comparisons of biodiversity data. <em>Alpine Botany, 121</em>, 73-78.</p>
<p>Notarnicola, C. (2020) Hotspots of snow cover changes in global mountain regions over 2000-2018. <em>Remote Sensing of Environment </em>243, 111781.</p>
<p>Olofsson, P., Foody, G. M., Herold, M., Stehman, S. V., Woodcock, C. E., Wulder, M. A. (2014): Good practices for estimating area and assessing accuracy of land change<em>. Remote Sensing of Environment</em>, 148, 42-57.</p>
<p>Ravilious, C., Tshwene-Mauchaza, B. and Kapos, V. (2021). <em>Validation and implementation of the Kapos Mountain Classification: Assessing the impact of DEM resolution on the mapping of mountain classes following the Kapos methodology</em>. UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK.</p>
<p>Santoro, M., Kirches, G., Wevers, J., Boettcher, M., Brockmann, C., Lamarche, C., . . . Defourny, P. (2015). <em>Land Cover CCI PRODUCT USER GUIDE VERSION 2.0.</em> European Spatial Agency. European Spatial Agency. Retrieved from http://maps.elie.ucl.ac.be/CCI/viewer/download/ESACCI-LC-Ph2-PUGv2_2.0.pdf</p>
<p>Sims, N.C., Newnham, G.J., England, J.R., Guerschman, J., Cox, S.J.D., Roxburgh, S.H., Viscarra Rossel, R.A., Fritz, S. and Wheeler, I. (2021). <em>Good Practice Guidance. SDG Indicator 15.3.1, Proportion of Land That Is Degraded Over Total Land Area. Version 2.0.</em> United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, Bonn, Germany </p>
<p>UN Statistical Division (2014). <em>System of Environmental Economic Accounting 2012 &#x2014; Central Framework. </em>New York, USA.</p>
<p>UNEP-WCMC (2002). <em>Mountain Watch: Environmental change and sustainable development in mountains.</em> Cambridge, UK</p>
<p><strong>Annex 1.</strong> Land cover transition matrix for the 10 SEEA classes. Land cover change processes are color coded as improvement (green), stable (yellow) or degradation (red). (Adapted from Sims <em>et al</em>. 2021). </p>
<table>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td colspan="10">
<p><strong>FINAL CLASS</strong></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td>
<p><strong>Artificial surfaces</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p><strong>Cropland</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p><strong>Grassland</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p><strong>Tree-covered areas</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p><strong>Shrub-covered areas</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p><strong>Herbaceous or shrub</strong></p>
<p><strong>vegetation,</strong></p>
<p><strong>aquatic or</strong></p>
<p><strong>regularly</strong></p>
<p><strong>flooded</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p><strong>Sparsely natural vegetated areas</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p><strong>Barren land</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p><strong>Permanent snow &amp; glaciers</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p><strong>Water bodies</strong></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="10">
<p><strong>ORIGINAL CLASS</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p><strong>Artificial Surfaces</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Stable</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Agricultural Expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Vegetation establishment</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Forest expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Vegetation establishment</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Wetland establishment</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Withdrawal of settlements</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Withdrawal of settlements</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Withdrawal of settlements</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Withdrawal of settlements</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<p><strong>Cropland</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Urban expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Stable</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Withdrawal of agriculture</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Forest expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Vegetation establishment</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Wetland establishment </p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Vegetation loss</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Vegetation loss</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Glacier advance</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Inundation</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<p><strong>Grassland</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Urban expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Agricultural Expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Stable</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Forest expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Woody encroachment</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Wetland establishment</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Vegetation loss</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Vegetation loss</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Glacier advance</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Inundation</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<p><strong>Tree-covered areas</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Deforestation</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Deforestation</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Deforestation</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Stable</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Vegetation loss</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Inundation</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Deforestation</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Deforestation</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Glacier advance</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Inundation</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<p><strong>Shrub-covered areas</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Urban expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Agricultural expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Vegetation loss</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Forest expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Stable</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Inundation</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Vegetation loss</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Vegetation loss</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Glacier advance</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Inundation</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<p><strong>Herbaceous or shrub</strong></p>
<p><strong>vegetation,</strong></p>
<p><strong>aquatic or</strong></p>
<p><strong>regularly</strong></p>
<p><strong>flooded</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Wetland drainage</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Wetland drainage</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Wetland drainage</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Wetland drainage</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Woody encroachment</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Stable</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Wetland drainage</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Wetland drainage</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Glacier advance</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Inundation</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<p><strong>Sparsely natural vegetated areas</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Urban expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Agricultural expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Vegetation establishment</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Forest expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Vegetation establishment</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Wetland establishment</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Stable</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Vegetation loss</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Glacier advance</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Inundation</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<p><strong>Barren land</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Urban expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Agricultural expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Vegetation establishment</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Forest expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Vegetation establishment</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Wetland establishment</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Vegetation establishment</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Stable</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Glacier advance</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Inundation </p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<p><strong>Permanent snow &amp; glaciers</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Urban expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Agricultural expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Glacier retreat</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Glacier retreat</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Glacier retreat</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Glacier melting</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Glacier retreat</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Glacier retreat</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Stable</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Glacier melting</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<p><strong>Water bodies</strong></p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Urban expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Agricultural expansion</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Lake dessication</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Lake dessication</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Lake dessication </p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Lake dessication </p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Lake dessication</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Lake dessication</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Glacier advance</p>
</td>
<td>
<p>Stable</p>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
a year ago
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String updated in the repository
<p><strong>Data availability:</strong></p>
<p>The indicator is generated by geospatial data and therefore has universal coverage. Countries with no values on the global SDG database are either A) countries with no mountains where the indicator is not applicable (indicated as NA) or B) countries that have not validated FAO&#x2019;s estimates and yet have not provided figures of their own.</p>
<p><strong>Time series:</strong></p>
<p>Country, regional and global figures are available since the year 2000. </p>
<p>For sub-indicator 15.4.2a, data is available for the years 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015 and 2018, and subsequently every three years. </p>
<p>For sub-indicator 15.4.2b, data is available for the reporting period 2000-2015 (baseline), 2018, and subsequently every three years. </p>
<p><strong>Disaggregation:</strong></p>
<p>In the global SDG database, both sub-indicators are disaggregated by mountain bioclimatic belts as defined by K&#xF6;rner <em>et al. </em>(2011) (see section 2c. Classifications). In addition, sub-indicator 15.4.2a is disaggregated by the 10 SEEA classes included in Table 2. Those values are reported both as proportions (percent) and area (in square kilometres). </p>
<h1> Доступность данных </h1>
<p> Показатель составляется на основе геопространственных данных и поэтому имеет всеобщий охват. Страны, не имеющие данных в глобальной базе данных ЦУР, - это либо A) страны, в которых нет гор и к ним показатель не применим, либо B) страны, которые не подтвердили оценки ФАО и еще не представили свои собственные данные. </p>
<ol>
<li> Данные по растительному покрову ИИК ЕКА находятся в свободном доступе по
адресу:<a href="https://www.esa-landcover-cci.org/?q=node/164">https://www.esa-landcover-cci.org/?q=node/164</a></li>
<li> Данные Kapos находятся в свободном доступе по следующим ссылкам: </li>
</ol>
<ul>
<li> На веб-сайте Горного партнерства ФАО находится растровый файл в правом баннере.
Доступ в<a href="http://www.fao.org/mountain-partnership/our-work/focusareas/foodsecurity/en/"> http://www.fao.org/mountain-partnership/our-work/focusareas/foodsecurity/en/ </a> </li>
<li> Классификацию Геологической службы США Mountain Explorer Kapos можно найти
как GME_K1classes.zip в: <a href="https://rmgsc.cr.usgs.gov/outgoing/ecosystems/Global/"> https://rmgsc.cr.usgs.gov/outgoing/ecosystems/Global </a> </li> </ul>
<ol>
<li> Административные границы доступны из различных глобальных баз данных по ссылкам
ниже: </li> </ol>
<ul>
<li> Зоны глобальных административных единиц ФАО (GAUL) <a href="https://data.europa.eu/euodp/data/dataset/jrc-10112-10004">
https://data.europa.eu/euodp/data/dataset/jrc-10112-10004 </a> </li>
<li> Divas-GIS <a href="https://www.diva-gis.org/gdata"> https://www.diva-gis.org/gdata
</a> </li>
<li> Границы второго административного уровня ООН (SALB) <a href="https://www.unsalb.org/">
https://www.unsalb.org/ </a> </li> </ul>
<h2> Временные ряды: </h2>
<p> Данные по странам, регионам и миру доступны за 2000, 2010, 2015 и 2018 годы. </p>
<h2> Дезагрегирование: </h2>
<p> В глобальной базе данных ЦУР показатель дезагрегирован по классу высоты гор (идентификатор гор). Дополнительный параметр дезагрегирования, класс растительного покрова МГЭИК доступен на портале показателей ЦУР ФАО. Комбинация шести классов высот и шести основных типов растительного покрова в соответствии с классификацией МГЭИК дает 36 различных дезагрегированных данных для каждой страны за отчетный год. </p>
a year ago
User avatar None

Source string changed
<p><strong>Data availability:</strong></p>
<p>The indicator is generated by geospatial data and therefore has universal coverage. Countries with no values on the global SDG database are either A) countries with no mountains where the indicator is not applicable (indicated as NA) or B) countries that have not validated FAO&#x2019;s estimates and yet have not provided figures of their own.</p>
<p><strong>Time series:</strong></p>
<p>Country, regional and global figures are available since the year 2000. </p>
<p>For sub-indicator 15.4.2a, data is available for the years 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015 and 2018, and subsequently every three years. </p>
<p>For sub-indicator 15.4.2b, data is available for the reporting period 2000-2015 (baseline), 2018, and subsequently every three years. </p>
<p><strong>Disaggregation:</strong></p>
<p>In the global SDG database, both sub-indicators are disaggregated by mountain bioclimatic belts as defined by K&#xF6;rner <em>et al. </em>(2011) (see section 2c. Classifications). In addition, sub-indicator 15.4.2a is disaggregated by the 10 SEEA classes included in Table 2. Those values are reported both as proportions (percent) and area (in square kilometres). </p>
a year ago
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String updated in the repository
<p>Detailed guidance and computation tools to support countries to compute the indicator and report its values using standardised reporting tables will be provided by FAO. </p>
<h2> Доступные странам методы и руководство для составления данных на национальном уровне: </h2>
<p> Значение показателя &#xA0; можно рассчитать следующим образом: </p>
<ol>
<li> Классы растительного покрова ЕКА; ИИК переклассифицированы в шесть классов
МГЭИК и карту зеленого / не зеленого покрова </li>
<li> Карта перепада высот Капоша наложена поверх карты полученной на стадии 1.
</li>
<li> Зональная гистограмма рассчитывается для каждой группировки стран и регионов
таким образом, чтобы количество пикселей, принадлежащих зеленому и не зеленому классам подсчитывалось в пределах каждогодиапазона перепадов. &#xA0; </li>
<li> Отношение (%) между суммой зеленых пикселей и общим количеством пикселей
(зеленый плюс не зеленый), попадающих в каждый Капош вычисляется для получения значений ИРПГ на каждый класс Капоша </li>
<li> Та же процедура используется для расчета распределения классов растительного
покрова, как определено МГЭИК, в пределах каждого перепада высот. </li> </ol>
a year ago
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String updated in the repository
<p><strong>Sub-indicator 15.4.2a</strong>, Mountain Green Cover Index, is defined as: </p>
<p><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML">
<mi>M</mi>
<mi>G</mi>
<mi>C</mi>
<mi>I</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>&amp;nbsp;</mi>
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<msub>
<mrow>
<mi>M</mi>
<mi>o</mi>
<mi>u</mi>
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>t</mi>
<mi>a</mi>
<mi>i</mi>
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>&amp;nbsp;</mi>
<mi>G</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
<mi>e</mi>
<mi>e</mi>
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>&amp;nbsp;</mi>
<mi>C</mi>
<mi>o</mi>
<mi>v</mi>
<mi>e</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
<mi>&amp;nbsp;</mi>
<mi>A</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
<mi>e</mi>
<mi>a</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mi>n</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mi>&amp;nbsp;</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mi>T</mi>
<mi>o</mi>
<mi>t</mi>
<mi>a</mi>
<mi>l</mi>
<mi>&amp;nbsp;</mi>
<mi>M</mi>
<mi>o</mi>
<mi>u</mi>
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>t</mi>
<mi>a</mi>
<mi>i</mi>
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>&amp;nbsp;</mi>
<mi>A</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
<mi>e</mi>
<mi>a</mi>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
<mo>&#xD7;</mo>
<mn>100</mn>
</math></p>
<p>Where: </p>
<ul>
<li><em>Mountain Green Cover Area<sub>n</sub> </em>= Sum of areas (in km<sup>2</sup>) covered by (1) tree-covered areas, (2) croplands, (3) grasslands, (4) shrub-covered areas and (5) shrubs and/or herbaceous vegetation, aquatic or regularly flooded classes in the reporting period <em>n.</em> </li>
<li><em>Total mountain area</em> = Total area of mountains (in km<sup>2</sup>). In both the numerator and denominator, mountain area is defined according to UNEP-WCMC<em> </em>(2002). </li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Sub-indicator 15.4.2b</strong>, Proportion of degraded mountain area, is reported as a binary quantification (degraded/non-degraded) of the extent of degraded land over total mountain area, given by:</p>
<p><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML">
<mi>P</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
<mi>o</mi>
<mi>p</mi>
<mi>o</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
<mi>t</mi>
<mi>i</mi>
<mi>o</mi>
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>&amp;nbsp;</mi>
<mi>o</mi>
<mi>f</mi>
<mi>&amp;nbsp;</mi>
<mi>d</mi>
<mi>e</mi>
<mi>g</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
<mi>a</mi>
<mi>d</mi>
<mi>e</mi>
<mi>d</mi>
<mi>&amp;nbsp;</mi>
<mi>m</mi>
<mi>o</mi>
<mi>u</mi>
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>t</mi>
<mi>a</mi>
<mi>i</mi>
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>&amp;nbsp;</mi>
<mi>a</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
<mi>e</mi>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mi>D</mi>
<mi>e</mi>
<mi>g</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
<mi>a</mi>
<mi>d</mi>
<mi>e</mi>
<mi>d</mi>
<mi>&amp;nbsp;</mi>
<mi>m</mi>
<mi>o</mi>
<mi>u</mi>
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>t</mi>
<mi>a</mi>
<mi>i</mi>
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>&amp;nbsp;</mi>
<mi>a</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
<mi>e</mi>
<mi>a</mi>
<mi>&amp;nbsp;</mi>
<mi>n</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mi>T</mi>
<mi>o</mi>
<mi>t</mi>
<mi>a</mi>
<mi>l</mi>
<mi>&amp;nbsp;</mi>
<mi>m</mi>
<mi>o</mi>
<mi>u</mi>
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>t</mi>
<mi>a</mi>
<mi>i</mi>
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>&amp;nbsp;</mi>
<mi>a</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
<mi>e</mi>
<mi>a</mi>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
<mi>&amp;nbsp;</mi>
<mo>&#xD7;</mo>
<mn>100</mn>
</math></p>
<p>Where: </p>
<ul>
<li><em>Degraded mountain area<sub>n</sub> </em>= Total degraded mountain area (in km<sup>2</sup>) in the reporting period <em>n.</em> This is, the sum of the areas where land cover change is considered to constitute degradation from the baseline period. Degraded mountain land will be assessed based on the land cover transition matrix in Annex 1. </li>
<li><em>Total mountain area</em> = Total area of mountains (in km<sup>2</sup>). In both the numerator and denominator, mountain area is defined according to UNEP-WCMC<em> </em>(2002). </li>
</ul>
<p>If the country/region has no mountain area, it will be assigned value NA.</p>
<h1> Методология </h1>
<h2> Метод расчета: </h2>
<p> Индекс растительного покрова гор (ИРПГ) определяется как </p>
<p> <em> ИРПГ = (Площадь растительного покрова гор / Общая площадь гор) X 100 </em> </p>
<p> Где площадь растительного покрова гор = сумма площадей, покрытых классами возделываемых земель, пастбищ, лесов и водно-болотных угодий. </p>
<p> Идентификатор растительности рассчитывается на основе карты растительного покрова с использованием основных функций ГИС. </p>
<p> Если в стране / регионе нет горной местности, ему будет присвоено значение "Не применимо". </p>
a year ago
User avatar None

Source string changed
<p><strong>Sub-indicator 15.4.2a</strong>, Mountain Green Cover Index, is defined as: </p>
<p><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML">
<mi>M</mi>
<mi>G</mi>
<mi>C</mi>
<mi>I</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>&amp;nbsp;</mi>
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<msub>
<mrow>
<mi>M</mi>
<mi>o</mi>
<mi>u</mi>
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>t</mi>
<mi>a</mi>
<mi>i</mi>
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>&amp;nbsp;</mi>
<mi>G</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
<mi>e</mi>
<mi>e</mi>
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>&amp;nbsp;</mi>
<mi>C</mi>
<mi>o</mi>
<mi>v</mi>
<mi>e</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
<mi>&amp;nbsp;</mi>
<mi>A</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
<mi>e</mi>
<mi>a</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mi>n</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mi>&amp;nbsp;</mi>
<mi>n</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mi>T</mi>
<mi>o</mi>
<mi>t</mi>
<mi>a</mi>
<mi>l</mi>
<mi>&amp;nbsp;</mi>
<mi>M</mi>
<mi>o</mi>
<mi>u</mi>
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>t</mi>
<mi>a</mi>
<mi>i</mi>
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>&amp;nbsp;</mi>
<mi>A</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
<mi>e</mi>
<mi>a</mi>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
<mo>&#xD7;</mo>
<mn>100</mn>
</math></p>
<p>Where: </p>
<ul>
<li><em>Mountain Green Cover Area<sub>n</sub> </em>= Sum of areas (in km<sup>2</sup>) covered by (1) tree-covered areas, (2) croplands, (3) grasslands, (4) shrub-covered areas and (5) shrubs and/or herbaceous vegetation, aquatic or regularly flooded classes in the reporting period <em>n.</em> </li>
<li><em>Total mountain area</em> = Total area of mountains (in Kkm<sup>2</sup>). In both the numerator and denominator, mountain area is defined according to UNEP-WCMC<em> </em>(2002). </li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Sub-indicator 15.4.2b</strong>, Proportion of degraded mountain area, is reported as a binary quantification (degraded/non-degraded) of the extent of degraded land over total mountain area, given by:</p>
<p><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML">
<mi>P</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
<mi>o</mi>
<mi>p</mi>
<mi>o</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
<mi>t</mi>
<mi>i</mi>
<mi>o</mi>
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>&amp;nbsp;</mi>
<mi>o</mi>
<mi>f</mi>
<mi>&amp;nbsp;</mi>
<mi>d</mi>
<mi>e</mi>
<mi>g</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
<mi>a</mi>
<mi>d</mi>
<mi>e</mi>
<mi>d</mi>
<mi>&amp;nbsp;</mi>
<mi>m</mi>
<mi>o</mi>
<mi>u</mi>
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>t</mi>
<mi>a</mi>
<mi>i</mi>
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>&amp;nbsp;</mi>
<mi>a</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
<mi>e</mi>
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mi>D</mi>
<mi>e</mi>
<mi>g</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
<mi>a</mi>
<mi>d</mi>
<mi>e</mi>
<mi>d</mi>
<mi>&amp;nbsp;</mi>
<mi>m</mi>
<mi>o</mi>
<mi>u</mi>
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>t</mi>
<mi>a</mi>
<mi>i</mi>
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>&amp;nbsp;</mi>
<mi>a</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
<mi>e</mi>
<mi>a</mi>
<mi>&amp;nbsp;</mi>
<mi>n</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mi>T</mi>
<mi>o</mi>
<mi>t</mi>
<mi>a</mi>
<mi>l</mi>
<mi>&amp;nbsp;</mi>
<mi>m</mi>
<mi>o</mi>
<mi>u</mi>
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>t</mi>
<mi>a</mi>
<mi>i</mi>
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>&amp;nbsp;</mi>
<mi>a</mi>
<mi>r</mi>
<mi>e</mi>
<mi>a</mi>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
<mi>&amp;nbsp;</mi>
<mo>&#xD7;</mo>
<mn>100</mn>
</math></p>
<p>Where: </p>
<ul>
<li><em>Degraded mountain area<sub>n</sub> </em>= Total degraded mountain area (in Kkm<sup>2</sup>) in the reporting period <em>n.</em> This is, the sum of the areas where land cover change is considered to constitute degradation from the baseline period. Degraded mountain land will be assessed based on the land cover transition matrix in Annex 1. </li>
<li><em>Total mountain area</em> = Total area of mountains (in Kkm<sup>2</sup>). In both the numerator and denominator, mountain area is defined according to UNEP-WCMC<em> </em>(2002). </li>
</ul>
<p>If the country/region has no mountain area, it will be assigned value N/A.</p>
a year ago
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<p>The indicator can be calculated using freely available Earth Observation data and simple Geographic Information Science (GIS) operations that can be processed in free and open source software (FOSS) GIS. Regional and global land cover data derived from Earth observation can play an important role in the absence of, to complement, or to enhance national official data sources. These datasets can help validate and improve national statistics for greater accuracy by ensuring that the data</p>
<p>Recognizing that this indicator cannot fully capture the complexity of mountain ecosystems across the world, countries are strongly encouraged to use other relevant national or sub-national indicators, data and information to strengthen their interpretation, as well as taking into account the following limitations: </p>
<ul>
<li>Sub-indicator &#x2018;&#x2019;a&#x2019;&#x2019; should be interpreted with care given that: 1) lack of green cover does not necessarily mean that a particular mountain area is degraded (i.e. areas of permanent snow and ice, scree slopes and natural sparsely vegetated areas above the tree line, 2) it does not capture significant drivers of change such as conversion of natural areas to cropland or pastureland, and 3) increase in green cover may due to impacts of climate change in mountain areas (i.e. increase in green cover due to snow and glacier retreat due to global warming). </li>
<li>Because land cover refers to the naturally stable aspects of land and the structure of its key elements, transient aspects such as vegetation phenology, snow or flooding cannot be captured by land cover transitions as measured in sub-indicator 15.4.2b. In the context of SDG Target 15.4, this is particularly relevant for snow cover dynamics (snow cover duration within a year), which has been highlighted as a key impact of global warming in mountain ecosystems with direct impacts to water provision (Notarnicola, 2020). </li>
<li>Decisions about which land cover transitions are linked to degradation processes would sometimes require information on the use of land, not only land cover. For example, the conversion of tree-covered areas to grassland may be a result of deforestation (change in land cover and land use) or just the result of certain management practices and natural disturbance (change in land cover only). The former could be identified as a negative transition, while the latter could be considered as stable or unchanging. The use of land use information would help to better characterize those changes in the context of sub-indicator &#x201C;b&#x2019;&#x2019;. </li>
<li>Both sub-indicators are not able to capture ecosystem degradation drivers that do not necessarily result in changes in land cover. Some examples of this include conversions of natural forests to intensively managed production systems such as plantation forests, orchards and oil palm plantations; conversion of natural and semi-natural grasslands to intensively used pastures, forest and grassland degradation or invasive species invasion, among others. However, the use of more detailed national land use maps may be able to overcome some of these gaps for sub-indicator 15.4.2b.</li>
<li>While access to remote sensing imagery has improved dramatically in recent years, there is still a need for essential historical time series that is currently only available at coarse to medium resolution. Therefore, if countries have national land cover maps of higher spatial resolution and comparable or better quality, FAO advises using them, following the same methodology presented here, for the generation of the indicator&#x2019;s values. </li>
<li>Area estimations based on remote-sensing-derived land cover maps such as the ESA-CCI product via pixel counting may lead to biased area estimates due to map errors (Olofsson et al. 2014). Countries are encouraged to further refine those estimates by comparing them against reference datasets and applying bias corrections.</li>
</ul>
<h2> Комментарии и ограничения: </h2>
<p> Показатель может быть рассчитан с использованием находящихся в свободном доступе данных наблюдения Земли и простых операций ГИС, которые можно обрабатывать в бесплатном программном обеспечении с открытым исходным кодом (FOSS) ГИС. </p>
<p>Потенциальные ограничения описанной выше методологии связаны в основном с качеством данных по растительному покрову. Карты растительного покрова ЕКА ИИК в настоящее время доступны с разрешением 300 метров, что ограничивает их применимость при мониторинге небольших и весьма неоднородных ландшафтов. Поэтому, если у стран есть национальные карты растительного покрова с более высоким пространственным разрешением и сопоставимым или лучшим качеством, ФАО рекомендует использовать их, следуя той же методологии, представленной здесь, для получения значений индекса растительного покрова гор. </p>
<p> Что касается интерпретации показателя, то в подавляющем большинстве случаев желаемым направлением является увеличение растительного покрова гор, что отражает снижение ущерба, наносимого естественным экосистемам и, возможно, даже расширение площади лесов, кустарников и пастбищ за счет усилий по сохранению экосистем, а в некоторых редких случаях рост значения показателя в классах больших высот может также означать распространение растительности на территории, ранее покрытые ледниками или другими многолетними или сезонными зонами льда или снега, в результате глобального потепления из-за изменения климата. Такое изменение можно отслеживать с помощью текущей методологии и соответствующим образом отмечать на уровне дезагрегированных данных по типу растительного покрова и классу высоты, чтобы отличить этот случай от общей желаемой тенденции увеличения растительного покрова гор.</p>
a year ago
User avatar None

Source string changed
<p>The indicator can be calculated using freely available Earth Observation data and simple Geographic Information Science (GIS) operations that can be processed in free and open source software (FOSS) GIS. Regional and global land cover data derived from Earth observation can play an important role in the absence of, to complement, or to enhance national official data sources. These datasets can help validate and improve national statistics for greater accuracy by ensuring that the data</p>
<p>Recognizing that this indicator cannot fully capture the complexity of mountain ecosystems across the world, countries are strongly encouraged to use other relevant national or sub-national indicators, data and information to strengthen their interpretation, as well as taking into account the following limitations: </p>
<ul>
<li>Sub-indicator &#x2018;&#x2019;a&#x2019;&#x2019; should be interpreted with care given that: 1) lack of green cover does not necessarily mean that a particular mountain area is degraded (i.e. areas of permanent snow and ice, scree slopes and natural sparsely vegetated areas above the tree line, 2) it does not capture significant drivers of change such as conversion of natural areas to cropland or pastureland, and 3) increase in green cover may due to impacts of climate change in mountain areas (i.e. increase in green cover due to snow and glacier retreat due to global warming). </li>
<li>Because land cover refers to the naturally stable aspects of land and the structure of its key elements, transient aspects such as vegetation phenology, snow or flooding cannot be captured by land cover transitions as measured in sub-indicator 15.4.2b. In the context of SDG Target 15.4, this is particularly relevant for snow cover dynamics (snow cover duration within a year), which has been highlighted as a key impact of global warming in mountain ecosystems with direct impacts to water provision (Notarnicola, 2020). </li>
<li>Decisions about which land cover transitions are linked to degradation processes would sometimes require information on the use of land, not only land cover. For example, the conversion of tree-covered areas to grassland may be a result of deforestation (change in land cover and land use) or just the result of certain management practices and natural disturbance (change in land cover only). The former could be identified as a negative transition, while the latter could be considered as stable or unchanging. The use of land use information would help to better characterize those changes in the context of sub-indicator &#x201C;b&#x2019;&#x2019;. </li>
<li>Both sub-indicators are not able to capture ecosystem degradation drivers that do not necessarily result in changes in land cover. Some examples of this include conversions of natural forests to treeintensively managed production systems such as plantation forests, orchards and oil palm plantations,; conversion of natural and semi-natural grasslands to intensively used pastures, forest and grassland degradation or invasive species invasion, among others. However, the use of more detailed national land use maps may be able to overcome some of these gaps for sub-indicator 15.4.2b.</li>
<li>While access to remote sensing imagery has improved dramatically in recent years, there is still a need for essential historical time series that is currently only available at coarse to medium resolution. Therefore, if countries have national land cover maps of higher spatial resolution and comparable or better quality, FAO advises using them, following the same methodology presented here, for the generation of the indicator&#x2019;s values. </li>
<li>Area estimations based on remote-sensing-derived land cover maps such as the ESA-CCI product via pixel counting may lead to biased area estimates due to map errors (Olofsson et al. 2014). Countries are encouraged to further refine those estimates by comparing them against reference datasets and applying bias corrections.</li>
</ul>
a year ago
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