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                "<emphasis>BACK TO BASICS</emphasis> <foreignphrase>Fork</foreignphrase>"
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                "<emphasis>К ОСНОВАМ</emphasis> Ответвление (<foreignphrase>fork</foreignphrase>)"
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                "<primary>fork</primary>"
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                "<primary>форк</primary>"
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            "source": [
                "A “fork”, in the software field, means a new project that starts as a clone of an existing project, and that will compete with it. From there on, both software will usually quickly diverge in terms of new developments. A fork is often the result of disagreements within the development team."
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                "В области программного обеспечения «ответвление» или «форк» означает новый проект, начатый как клон существующего проекта и конкурирующий с ним. В дальнейшем оба программных продукта как правило быстро расходятся в плане новых доработок. Форк часто является результатом конфликтов внутри команды разработчиков."
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            "source": [
                "The option to fork a project is a direct result of the very nature of free software; a fork is a healthy event when it enables the continuation of a project as free software (for example in case of license changes). A fork arising from technical or personal disagreements is often a waste of human resources; another resolution would be preferable. Mergers of two projects that previously went through a prior fork are not unheard of."
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                "Возможность создать ответвление прямо следует из самой природы свободного ПО; форк — это здоровое явление, если оно позволяет продолжить развитие проекта как свободного ПО (например в случае изменения лицензии). Форк, возникающий из-за технических или личных разногласий зачастую является транжирством человеческого ресурса; другое решение было бы более предпочтительным. Случаются и слияния двух проектов, ранее разошедшихся вследствие форка."
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            "source": [
                "Key-Based Authentication"
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            "target": [
                "Аутентификация по ключу"
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            "source": [
                "Each time someone logs in over SSH, the remote server asks for a password to authenticate the user. This can be problematic if you want to automate a connection, or if you use a tool that requires frequent connections over SSH. This is why SSH offers a key-based authentication system."
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            "target": [
                "При каждом входе по SSH удалённый сервер запрашивает пароль, чтобы аутентифицировать пользователя. Это может создать проблему, если хочется автоматизировать соединение, или если используется некий инструмент, которому нужно часто устанавливать соединения через SSH. По этой причине в SSH предусмотрен механизм аутентификации по ключу."
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            "source": [
                "<emphasis>SECURITY</emphasis> Protection of the private key"
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            "target": [
                "<emphasis>БЕЗОПАСНОСТЬ</emphasis> Защита секретного ключа"
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            "source": [
                "Whoever has the private key can login on the account thus configured. This is why access to the private key is protected by a “passphrase”. Someone who acquires a copy of a private key file (for example, <filename>~/.ssh/id_rsa</filename>) still has to know this phrase in order to be able to use it. This additional protection is not, however, impregnable, and if you think that this file has been compromised, it is best to disable that key on the computers in which it has been installed (by removing it from the <filename>authorized_keys</filename> files) and replacing it with a newly generated key."
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            "target": [
                "Кто угодно, имеющий секретный ключ, может войти в настроенную таким образом учётную запись. Поэтому доступ к секретному ключу защищается «парольной фразой». Некто, получивший копию секретного ключа (например <filename>~/.ssh/id_rsa</filename>) всё равно должен знать эту фразу, чтобы иметь возможность воспользоваться им. Эта дополнительная защита не является, однако, неприступной, и если есть основания полагать, что данный файл был скомпроментирован, лучше отключить этот ключ на компьютерах, на которые он был установлен, (путём удаления его из файлов <filename>authorized_keys</filename>) и заменить его вновь созданным ключом."
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            "source": [
                "<emphasis>CULTURE</emphasis> OpenSSL flaw in Debian <emphasis role=\"distribution\">Etch</emphasis>"
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            "target": [
                "<emphasis>КУЛЬТУРА</emphasis> Уязвимость OpenSSL в Debian <emphasis role=\"distribution\">Etch</emphasis>"
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                "Specifically, whenever OpenSSL was used to generate a key, it always produced a key within a known set of hundreds of thousands of keys (32,000 multiplied by a small number of key lengths). This affected SSH keys, SSL keys, and X.509 certificates used by numerous applications, such as OpenVPN. A cracker had only to try all of the keys to gain unauthorized access. To reduce the impact of the problem, the SSH daemon was modified to refuse problematic keys that are listed in the <emphasis role=\"pkg\">openssh-blacklist</emphasis> and <emphasis role=\"pkg\">openssh-blacklist-extra</emphasis> packages. Additionally, the <command>ssh-vulnkey</command> command allows identification of possibly compromised keys in the system."
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            "target": [
                "В частности, когда OpenSSL использовалась для генерации ключа, она всегда создавала ключ из известного набора нескольких сотен тысяч ключей (32.000, помноженные на небольшое число длин ключей). Это затронуло ключи SSH и SSL, а также сертификаты X.509, используемые многочисленными приложениями, такими как OpenVPN. Взломщику оставалось только перепробовать все ключи, чтобы получить неавторизованный доступ. Чтобы уменьшить последствия этой проблемы, демон SSH был модифицирован таким образом, чтобы отклонять проблемные ключи, перечисленные в пакетах <emphasis role=\"pkg\">openssh-blacklist</emphasis> и <emphasis role=\"pkg\">openssh-blacklist-extra</emphasis>. Кроме того, команда <command>ssh-vulnkey</command> позволяет обнаружить возможно скомпроментированные ключи в системе."
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            "source": [
                "A more thorough analysis of this incident brings to light that it is the result of multiple (small) problems, both within the OpenSSL project and with the Debian package maintainer. A widely used library like OpenSSL should — without modifications — not generate warnings when tested by <command>valgrind</command>. Furthermore, the code (especially the parts as sensitive as the RNG) should be better commented to prevent such errors. On Debian's side, the maintainer wanted to validate the modifications with the OpenSSL developers, but simply explained the modifications without providing the corresponding patch to review and failed to mention his role within Debian. Finally, the maintenance choices were sub-optimal: the changes made to the original code were not clearly documented; all the modifications were effectively stored in a Subversion repository, but they ended up all lumped into one single patch during creation of the source package."
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            "target": [
                "Более детальный анализ выявил, что это результат нескольких (небольших) проблем и в проекте OpenSSL и у сопровождающего пакет Debian. Такие широко используемые библиотеки как OpenSSL должны без изменений проходить тест <command>valgrind</command> без предупреждений. Более того, код (особенно чувствительные части, как RNG) должен быть лучше сопровождён комментариями для предотвращения таких ошибок. Сопровождающий пакета Debian хотел согласовать изменения вместе с разработчиками OpenSSL, но просто объяснил их, не предоставив соответствующий патч для проверки и не уведомил о своей роли в Debian. Наконец, его выбор не был оптимальным: изменения в исходном коде не были отчётливо сопровождены комментариями. Они были сохранены в репозитории Subversion, затем свалены в один патч во время создания пакета с исходным кодом."
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                "Using Remote X11 Applications"
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                "The SSH protocol allows forwarding of graphical data (“X11” session, from the name of the most widespread graphical system in Unix); the server then keeps a dedicated channel for those data. Specifically, a graphical program executed remotely can be displayed on the X.org server of the local screen, and the whole session (input and display) will be secure. Since this feature allows remote applications to interfere with the local system, it is disabled by default. You can enable it by specifying <literal>X11Forwarding yes</literal> in the server configuration file (<filename>/etc/ssh/sshd_config</filename>). Finally, the user must also request it by adding the <literal>-X</literal> option to the <command>ssh</command> command-line."
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                "Протокол SSH позволяет пересылать графические данные (сессию «X11», по названию наиболее широко распространённой в Unix графической системы); в таком случае сервер сохраняет выделенный канал для этих данных. Так, графическая программа, запущенная удалённо, может быть отображена сервером X.org на локальном экране, и вся сессия (ввод и отображение) будет защищена. Поскольку эта возможность позволяет удалённым приложениям перекрываться с локальной системой, она отключена по умолчанию. Её можно включить, указав <literal>X11Forwarding yes</literal> в конфигурационном файле сервера (<filename>/etc/ssh/sshd_config</filename>). Пользователь также должен явно запросить её, добавив опцию <literal>-X</literal> к командной строке <command>ssh</command>."
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                "Its <literal>-R</literal> and <literal>-L</literal> options allow <command>ssh</command> to create “encrypted tunnels” between two machines, securely forwarding a local TCP port (see sidebar <xref linkend=\"sidebar.tcp-udp\" />) to a remote machine or vice versa."
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                "The Internet, and most LANs that are connected to it, operate in packet mode and not in connected mode, meaning that a packet issued from one computer to another is going to be stopped at several intermediary routers to find its way to its destination. You can still simulate a connected operation where the stream is encapsulated in normal IP packets. These packets follow their usual route, but the stream is reconstructed unchanged at the destination. We call this a “tunnel”, analogous to a road tunnel in which vehicles drive directly from the entrance (input) to the exit (output) without encountering any intersections, as opposed to a path on the surface that would involve intersections and changing direction."
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                "Интернет, как и большинство подключённых к нему локальных сетей, работает в пакетном режиме, а не в подключённом. Это означает, что пакет, отправленный одним компьютером другому, будет останавливаться на нескольких промежуточных маршрутизаторах для выяснения пути к его месту назначения. Но всё же можно симулировать подключённую работу, энкапсулируя поток в обычные пакеты IP. Эти пакеты следуют своим обычным путём, а поток восстанавливается в неизменном виде в месте назначения. Это называется «туннелем» по аналогии с дорожным туннелем, по которому автомобили следуют напрямую от въезда (ввод) к выезду (вывод) без каких бы то ни было перекрёстков, в противоположность движению по поверхности, где встречались бы перекрёстки и менялось направление движения."
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                "You can use this opportunity to add encryption to the tunnel: the stream that flows through it is then unrecognizable from the outside, but it is returned in decrypted form at the exit of the tunnel."
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                "<command>ssh -L 8000:server:25 intermediary</command> establishes an SSH session with the <replaceable>intermediary</replaceable> host and listens to local port 8000 (see <xref linkend=\"figure.ssh-L\" />). For any connection established on this port, <command>ssh</command> will initiate a connection from the <replaceable>intermediary</replaceable> computer to port 25 on the <replaceable>server</replaceable>, and will bind both connections together."
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